Categories of Water use

The U.S. Geological Survey categorizes water use for analyzing current patterns and predicting future trends.

Commercial water use includes fresh water for motels, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, other commercial facilities, and civilian and military institutions. Domestic water use is probably the most important daily use of water for most people.

Domestic use includes water that is used in the home every day, including water for normal household purposes, such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, and watering lawns and gardens.

Industrial water use is a valuable resource to the nation's industries for such purposes as processing, cleaning, transportation, dilution, and cooling in manufacturing facilities. Major water-using industries include steel, chemical, paper, and petroleum refining. Industries often reuse the same water over and over for more than one purpose.

Irrigation water use is water artificially applied to farm, orchard, pasture, and horticultural crops, as well as water used to irrigate pastures, for frost and freeze protection, chemical application, crop cooling, harvesting, and for the leaching of salts from the crop root zone. Nonagricultural activities include self-supplied water to irrigate public and private golf courses, parks,

Figure 2. This illustration summarizes water withdrawals in the United States in 1995. The bar chart depicts fresh-water withdrawals (in billion gallons per day, or BGD). The table includes fresh-water and saline withdrawals (in million gallons per day, or MGD).

nurseries, turf farms, cemeteries, and other landscape irrigation uses. The importance of irrigation to the United States is illustrated by the large amount of fresh water that is used to cultivate crops, which are consumed domestically and throughout the world. In fact, irrigation is the largest category of water use in the United States, as it is worldwide.

Livestock water use includes water for stock animals, feed lots, dairies, fish farms, and other nonfarm needs. Water is needed for the production of red meat, poultry, eggs, milk, and wool, and for horses, rabbits, and pets. Livestock water use only includes fresh water.

Mining water use includes water for the extraction of naturally occurring minerals; solids, such as coal and ores; liquids, such as crude petroleum; and gases, such as natural gas. The category includes quarrying, milling (such as crushing, screening, washing, and flotation), and other operations as part of mining activity. A significant portion of the water used for mining, about 32 percent, is saline.

Public Supply water use refers to water withdrawn by public and private water suppliers, such as county and municipal water works, and delivered to users for domestic, commercial, and industrial purposes. In 1995, the majority of the nation's population, about 225 million, or 84 percent, used water delivered from public water suppliers. About 42 million people supplied their own water, with about 99 percent of that water being groundwater, usually from a local well.

Thermoelectric Power water use is the amount of water used in the production of electric power generated with heat. The source of the heat may be from fossil fuels, nuclear fission, or geothermal. Fossil fuel power plants typically reuse water. They generate electricity by turning a turbine using steam power. After the steam is used to turn the turbines, it is condensed back to water by cooling it. The condensed water is then routed back to the boiler, where the cycle begins again.

Trends from 1950 to 1995

After continual increases in the nation's total water withdrawals (fresh water and saline water) for the years reported from 1950 to 1980, withdrawals declined from 1980 to 1985 and remained fairly constant from 1985 to 1995. The 1995 estimate of total withdrawals (402,000 MGD) is about 2 percent less than the 1990 estimate and nearly 10 percent less than the peak year of 1980. Likewise, total fresh-water withdrawals for 1995 were about 8 percent less than in 1980.

The decline in withdrawals is especially significant in light of the fact that population posted an increase of 16 percent during the same period. Clearly as a nation, the United States is using its surface water and groundwater resources more efficiently. This decline signals that water use responds to economic and regulatory factors, and that the general public has an enhanced awareness of water resources and conservation issues.

Uses of Water

Water is one of the most vital natural resources for all life on Earth. The availability and quality of water always have played an important part in determining not only where people can live, but also their quality of life. Even though there always has been plenty of fresh water on Earth, water has not always been available when and where it is needed, nor is it always of suitable quality for all uses. Water must be considered as a finite resource that has limits and boundaries to its availability and suitability for use.

Figure 1. Offstream uses (depicted on the left) are those in which water is removed from its source, either by pumping or diversion. Instream uses (depicted on the right) are those in which water remains in place, and typically refers to stream (rather than groundwater). Where water supply is limited, conflicts may result between and among the various uses.

The balance between supply and demand for water is a delicate one. The availability of usable water has and will continue to dictate where and to what extent development will occur. Water must be in sufficient supply for an area to develop, and an area cannot continue to develop if water demand far outstrips available supply. Further, a water supply will be called upon to meet an array of offstream uses (in which the water is withdrawn from the source) in addition to instream uses (in which the water remains in place). Figure 1 represents the demands on water as a tug-of-war among the various offstream and instream uses.

Traditionally, water management in the United States focused on expanding or manipulating the country's supplies of fresh water to meet the needs of users. A number of large dams were built during the early twentieth century to increase the supply of fresh water for any given time and place. This era of building large dams has passed. In the twenty-first century, the finite water supply and established infrastructure require that demand be managed more effectively within the available sustainable supply. Water-use information can be used to evaluate the impacts of population growth and the effectiveness of alternative water management policies, regulations, and conservation activities.

The Water-Use Cycle

Water is constantly in motion by way of the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates as vapor from oceans, lakes, and rivers; is transpired from plants; condenses in the air and falls as precipitation; and then moves over and through the ground into waterbodies, where the cycle begins again.^*

The water-use cycle is composed of the water cycle with the added influence of human activity. Dams, reservoirs, canals, aqueducts, withdrawal pipes in rivers, and groundwater wells all reveal that humans have a major impact on the water cycle. In the water-use cycle, water moves from a source to a point of use, and then to a point of disposition. The sources of water are either surface water or groundwater. Water is withdrawn and moved from a source to a point of use, such as an industry, restaurant, home, or farm. After water is used, it must be disposed of (or sometimes, reused). Used water is either directly returned to the environment or passes through a treatment processing plant before being returned.

Water Properties

Water has three states. Below freezing water is a solid (ice or snowflakes), between freezing and boiling water is a liquid, and above its boiling point water is a gas. There are words scientists use to describe water changing from one state to another. Water changing from solid to liquid is said to be melting. When it changes from liquid to gas it is evaporating. Water changing from gas to liquid is called condensation (An example is the 'dew' that forms on the outside of a glass of cold soda). Frost formation is when water changes from gas directly to solid form. When water changes directly from solid to gas the process is called sublimation.

Gas	Liquid	Solid

Most liquids contract (get smaller) when they get colder. Water is different. Water contracts until it reaches 4 C then it expands until it is solid. Solid water is less dense that liquid water because of this. If water worked like other liquids, then there would be no such thing as an ice berg, the ice in your soft drink would sink to the bottom of the glass, and ponds would freeze from the bottom up!

Water is found on Earth in all three forms. This is because Earth is a very special planet with just the right range of temperatures and air pressures. Earth is said to be at the triple point for water.

Adhesion and Cohesion

Water is attracted to other water. This is called cohesion. Water can also be attracted to other materials. This is called adhesion.

The oxygen end of water has a negative charge and the hydrogen end has a positive charge. The hydrogens of one water molecule are attracted to the oxygen from other water molecules. This attractive force is what gives water its cohesive and adhesive properties.

Surface Tension

Surface tension is the name we give to the cohesion of water molecules at the surface of a body of water. Try this at home: place a drop of water onto a piece of wax paper. Look closely at the drop. What shape is it? Why do you think it is this shape?

What is happening? Water is not attracted to wax paper (there is no adhesion between the drop and the wax paper). Each molecule in the water drop is attracted to the other water molecules in the drop. This causes the water to pull itself into a shape with the smallest amount of surface area, a bead (sphere). All the water molecules on the surface of the bead are 'holding' each other together or creating surface tension.

Surface tension allows water striders to 'skate' across the top of a pond. You can experiment with surface tension. Try floating a pin or a paperclip on the top if a glass of water. A metal pin or paper clip is heavier than water, but because of the surface tension the water is able to hold up the metal.

Surface tension is not the force that keeps boats floating. If you want to know why a boat floats look here: Why do boats float?

Capillary Action

Surface tension is related to the cohesive properties of water. Capillary action however, is related to the adhesive properties of water. You can see capillary action 'in action' by placing a straw into a glass of water. The water 'climbs' up the straw. What is happening is that the water molecules are attracted to the straw molecules. When one water molecule moves closer to a the straw molecules the other water molecules (which are cohesively attracted to that water molecule) also move up into the straw. Capillary action is limited by gravity and the size of the straw. The thinner the straw or tube the higher up capillary action will pull the water (Can you make up an experiment to test this?).

Plants take advantage of capillary action to pull water from the into themselves. From the roots water is drawn through the plant by another force, transpiration. Click here for more information about transpiration.

Another important factor is the amount of water necessary for our body to function at its peak performance. Bearing in mind again that your body is about 75 percent water it is easy to understand that water must be your body's most essential daily ingredient. Your body looses each day about 2-3 litters of water through elimination, urination, perspiration and respiration. However, this may increase during illness, high performance, exercise, pregnancy and nursing. The beverages most people choose to consume are often counter-productive in promoting hydration. Coffee, tea, alcohol, soft and sugary drinks are all diuretics and will cause not only the loss of water the are dissolved in, but they will also draw water the bodies reserves. In normal conditions your body needs to replace the fluids it has lost throughout the day. Most of fluids should be replaced by drinking pure water. The rest you should get from fruit, vegetables and their juices. Attention must be given that the elderly and children are meeting their daily requirements. Dry mouth is not the only indication of dehydration, in fact it is the last sign. You need to acquire the habit to drink water even when you think you don't need it and eventually your true thirst mechanisms will be reawaken. Signs to look for that identify with dehydration are constipation, headaches, indigestion, weight gain, fluid retention, dark and pungent urine, and their associated pathologies colitis, kidney stones, bladder and urinary track infections to name only a few.

WHAT CHOICES HAVE WE GOT?

Dr Batmanghelidj talks about the shrinking of the vital organs due to insufficient hydration. Dr Bragg postulates how inorganic minerals in water turns people into 'stones' and advises the use of pure water. John Archer alarms of the dangers and condition of public (sewage) water

You are what you drink so make sure what you drink is pure'

Ten years ago the prospect of drinking only purified or bottled water was a fiction, or a novelty for most people. Nowadays, it is becoming a necessity in maintaining and preserving good health. Finding pure water is becoming more than just food for thought and with our brain being 85 percent water, we better start thinking of the choices. It is my opinion and as well of others that tap water should not be drunk at all if other sources are available. However, if tap water is your only option, then boil the water for a few minutes, expose it to the sun for a while in a clear glass container and then aerate it by pouring it back and forth from one container to another. Keep in mind that boiling will only kill bacteria and that harmful chemicals and minerals will still remain in the water. Rain water it is no longer the best available option with today's pollution. Water is a hungry solvent and as the rain falls, it begins to collect hundreds of potentially harmful substances, such as radioactive isotopes and their degradation products of atomic fission including barium, caesium and strontium from world wide atomic experiments and "accidents" which travel around the atmosphere (refer to chart). In addition industrial and exhaust fumes including carbon monoxide, sulphuric acid and lead are collected. That is why the sky looks so clean after a good 'acid' rain.

Spring water contains those unwanted inorganic minerals and their purity is debatable if you consider the pollution of the soil. So use it sparingly or when nothing else is available. Don't be mislead by claims about the value of inorganic minerals, the body cannot make use of any minerals unless they are derived from the plant kingdom (organic minerals). A well balanced diet will provide an abundance of organic minerals that water never could. In his book 'New Life Through Nutrition' nutritionist Dr Shelton Deal debates that we should not look to water as our source of minerals. As for the inexpensive supermarket filters they don't eliminate all impurities and toxins (not that it is claimed that they do).

Reverse osmosis is by far the most advanced technology for home installation available to the public. It is based on the process by which the human cells diffuse fluids between the intracellular and extracellular spaces, by separating and selectively preventing the passage of solute molecules (through a semipermeable membrane) and allowing the passage of the solvent H2O. Through this process almost all harmful bacteria, minerals and toxins are eliminated. Professional installation and surveillance is necessary for if the membrane is ruptured without your knowledge the final condition of the water could be worse than if it were not filtered.

Distilled water, contrary to the wide held view that it leaches organic essential minerals and micronutrients from your body, its emptiness works in your favour. It dissolves and eliminates harmful inorganic minerals and toxic waste accumulation. Once the organic nutrients have been absorbed by the cells they cannot be taken away. Is there an inherent intelligentsia behind all this? The answer is yes! after all, what is the animating factor behind all things? but far from being just an esoteric answer, the key lies in the inherent 'instructions' of the human body's filtering system. The kidneys make sure that nothing valuable will be lost, there is a constant recycling, so even if nutrients were to be 'stolen' they would be returned by the kidneys. Which explains the dark appearance of urine during times of inadequate hydration. Distillation is achieved by boiling the water, steam then rises and is collected in a condenser where it is stored and cooled. The problem in this process is that together with the steam, percentage of the pollutant gases such fluorine and chlorine are also evaporated over into the condenser. To overcome this problem scientists developed other methods like fragmented distillation and C.M.D method (Cold Molecular Distillation) amongst others. C.M.D water is available from companies6 specialising in this area and supply water for medical purposes, allergy affected chemical sensitive people, cancer and dialysis patients (were even small traces of contaminants can send the patient into shock) and generally to any one who is seeking good health. C.M.D water contains no solid matter and is solely consisting of two elements, Hydrogen and Oxygen.

SUMMARY

Water is involved in all bodily functions: digestion, assimilation, elimination, respiration, maintaining temperature (homeostasis) integrity and the strength of all bodily structures. Today, the water is polluted with hundreds of toxins and impurities. Authorities only test for a small number of them. Your body, being primarily water, requires sufficient daily water replacement in order to function efficiently. Water treatments, that are aimed to render our drinking water bacteriologically safe, have been proven ineffective and the presence of certain pathogenic bacteria like giardia and cryptosporidium recently found in Sydney water is just one of the many examples. Viewing the effects of individual chemicals, inorganic minerals and their by-products, you can see a link to today's major diseases. If you drink devitalised, impure water how can you expect vitality and health. Dehydration, due to the offensive taste of the water and the introduction of commercial sugar loaded beverages, has become another contributing factor to dis-ease. The advice of Dr Batmanghelidj to stop treating thirst with medications holds lots of merit. Mineral water may be wonderful to bathe in, however, the presence of inorganic minerals makes it undesirable. Tap water has been proven unsuitable even for showering7. In an article published in the magazine New Scientist, by Ian Anderson 18/9/86, he writes "Showers pose a risk to health". Pure water may become the medicine of the future. 'Oxygen enriched and free of radioactive and chemical compounds' may read on the label of our bottle water in the next millennium.... At this stage Reverse Osmosis and C.M.D water are our best available options.

THE HISTORY OF WATER

Water has been used since antiquity as a symbol by which to express devotion and purity. Some cultures, like the ancient Greeks, went as far as to worship gods who were thought to live in and command the waters. Whole cities have been build by considering the location and availability of pure drinking water. The place of gathering was around the wells, which is perhaps the following trend in building fountains in the middle of piazzas.

Traditional and modern medicine have been makings use of the psychological and physiological diverse properties of water, in all forms of hydrotherapy (composite Greek word: hydro, of water and therapy, . We all know of the simple, yet effective, calming qualities of a warm bath or the invigorating qualities of a cold shower. For centuries, numerous healing springs located all around the world have been recognised for their benefits. The famous Belgium spas in the Ardennes is a fine example. Historical records of these cold springs claim 'cures' since the fourteenth century. The hot Californian spas, the healing spas of Loutraki in Greece, the Dalhousie hot springs in the border of South Australia and Northern Territory, Moree in NSW, Hepburn mineral spas in Victoria are just a few examples.

OUR WATER TODAY

Contrary to the past, our recent developed technological society has become indifferent to this miracle of life. Our natural heritage (rivers, seas and oceans) has been exploited, mistreated and contaminated.

The population decline of the marine and riparian life, the appearance of green algae in the rivers and the stench and slime that comes as a result of putrefaction in the water, are clear signs of the depth and extent of disruption that has been caused to this intricate ecosystem (a composite Greek word: eco, home and systema, a combination of things or parts forming a complex or unitary whole). Government bodies and water authorities will have us believe that it is 'safe' and we should not worry about this global alarm. Awareness and action lies entirely upon us, as we need to become our own educators, physicians and innovators. Socrates had once said: "an unexamined life is not worth living....", Jesus took it a step further: "seek, and you shall find......the truth shall set you free..." So questioning everything and anything that anyone tells you until it makes sense, is of uppemost importance. If it is the truth it will feel right, set you free and lead you on the road of discovery and recovery.

THE TRUTH ABOUT THE DRINKING WATER

Our drinking water today, far from being pure, contains some two hundred deadly commercial chemicals. Add to that bacteria, viruses, inorganic minerals (making the water hard) and you have a chemical cocktail that is unsuitable (if not deadly) for human consumption. John Archer in his book 'THE WATER YOU DRINK, HOW SAFE IS IT ?' refers to an estimate of 60,000 tonnes of fifty different chemicals being deliberately added annually to Australia's water. Some of these are:

chlorine: studies1 indicate that chlorine is involved in heart disease, hardening of the arteries (arteriosclerosis), anaemia, high blood pressure, allergies and cancers2 of the bladder, stomach, liver and rectum. Further, chlorine can destroy protein in the body and cause adverse effects on the skin and hair. The US COUNCIL of environmental quality states that cancer risk among people drinking chlorinated water is 93% higher than among those whose water does not contain chlorine". Chlorine binds and reacts with many other chemicals, forming carcinogens like Trihallomethanes3 (THMs), with chloroform being the most common one. Furthermore, recent real life evidence in the tap water of Sydney shows that certain viruses and parasites, like giardia and cryptosporidium, are being resistant to chlorine and can survive the long journey from the sewage treatment to your tap. That makes chlorination a even more pointless and dangerous practice.

Giardia and cryptosporidium are protosoa (unicellular organisms) parasitic to the intestines of animals and humans. Once in the body, these parasites then multiply and cause the respective infections of giardiasis and cryptosporidosis, which contribute or are associated to enteric (intestinal) diseases. Other than food, these parasites are transmited from contaminated drinking water. These infested waters are today in most major cities which is a direct result of the unsuccsessful treatment of recycled sewage effluent. These parasites initially venture their way into the sewage effluent, from Hospitals, abattoir and farms waste, which contain blood, intestines and faeces. While immunocompitend (the ability to develope an immune response) people may remain asymptomatic (presenting no symptons) by ingestion of this parasites, immunocompromised (ie malnutrition Cancer and Aids) patients are at risk. U.S Health Officials estimate 900,000 people each year become ill, and possibly 900 die from waterborne disease4. Notable outbreaks occured in Milwauke, Wisconsin, in 1993 when over 400,000 people became ill after drinking water contaminated with the parasite. Symptoms associated with the infection of this parasites are, mild to profuse debilitating diarrhoea, lassitude, nausea, abdominal pain and vomiting with consequent loss of appetite and fever. The threat and danger of outbreaks similar to the dreaded great London epidemic in 1854 (were cholera due to contaminated water took the life of many unaware citizens) is now once again at our door step and unless drastic precautions are taken on these early sign's we could be expecting disasters of great magnitude (in the apocalipse it states, that one third of the waters will be contaminated, could this be it?). For now it is about time that water authorities admit to their erroneous ways and start looking for alternatives to maintain and preserve water safety and quality. Water is a living substance and as such it needs the same treatment as all other living forms (poisons can not purify). Germany has been for long now pumping oxygen in its rivers and lakes in an attempt to revitalise its nearly dead waters, while Switzerland is experimenting with ozone treatments.

aluminium sulphate: that is added to clarify water, has long been associated with memory loss, possibly Alzheimers disease and is believed to increase cardiovascular disease.

sodium fluoride: this is not a water treatment and was initially added as a supplement to 'assumingly' prevent tooth decay5 in children. Its toxicity is high enough that in larger concentrations can be used as a pesticide and rat killer. In humans it can be damaging to the heart, lungs, liver, cause genetic mutations and have long term negative effects on enzyme production and the efficiency of the immune system. In the medical encyclopedia and dictionary by Miller-Keane, under fluoridation it refers that slight excesses of fluoride are poisonous and it can cause dental fluorosis (mottled discolouration of teeth) and when you look up further down under fluorosis, you can see clearly the irony of the system an enamel hypoplasia resulting from prolonged ingestion of drinking water containing high levels of fluoride". Tests carried out in Victoria in 1976 by the State Water Supply Commission indicated that fluoride is involved in the corrosion of the copper pipes, which causes more poisons leaching into the water. Copper at certain concentrations effects the uptake of essential zinc in the body and can bring on stomach pain, nausea and diarrhoea. Newer office blocks and high stories buildings are more risky, as taps are not regularly used, leaving fluorinated water standing in the copper pipes for longer periods of times, consequently allowing corrosion. As the debate about the safety of fluoride continuous, countries such as Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, Germany and Sweden have terminated its use due to its potential health hazard.

lead: is another chemical ingredient found in the water that imposes risks to the nervous, circulatory and digestive systems. It is a teratogen, a substance known to cause physical defects in the developing embryo. Chronic exposure, even in small doses, may have serious implications to your well being. Symptoms to be wary of are irritability, nervousness, weight loss, anaemia, stomach crumps, constipation and mental depression. The main source of lead in the water is the plumbing and its corrosion.

The list of chemicals continues: sodium sillicofluoride slurry, sulphuric acid, sodium hypochlorite solution, calcium oxide, silt, rust, algae, debris, larvae, asbestos (mostly from corroding cement pipe lines), pesticides, herbicides, fertilisers (from agricultural run offs), moulds, fungi, industrial waste, toxic metals, amoebas, clay and silica have all found their way into the water. As if this is not enough, chemical reactions of the different constituents in our drinking chemical and sewage cocktail make things even worse.

Nitrates from fertilisers when brought in contact with chlorine and ammonia, can turn into nitrites. Nitrites once inside the body combine with amines and form nitrosamines which are highly carcinogenic. Nitrites can interfere with oxygen uptake and since babies are specifically sensitive to this aspect you could not fail to see a possible link between blue baby syndrome and the nitrite factor.

According to studies by the state of California, women who drink tap water have twice as many miscarriages and birth defects as those who have filtering devises or are drinking bottled water. Five studies arrived to the same conclusion, according to State Health, Director Kenneth Kizer. This connection now is such a common knowledge that it even appeared as a passing comment during the movie 'ONE THOUSAND ACRES'.

Inorganic minerals (minerals not suitable for human consumption) such as calcium carbonate, have their effect. Unable to be assimilated they store in between joints, muscles, bones, nerves, inside arteries and become partners in many crippling dis-eases, such as arthritis, hardening of the arteries, gall stones, kidney stones, gout, tinnitus and perhaps even stroke and neuralgia. Dr Paul C. Bragg in his essay and book 'THE SHOCKING TRUTH ABOUT WATER' argues that the human brain and other body structures will become hardened largely through the use of "chemicalized and inorganically mineralised water".

Dr E. Banik, in his book 'THE CHOICE IS CLEAR', explains that inorganic minerals coat the crystalline lens of the eye with a fine film, resulting in cataracts. Glaucoma, the dreadful eye disease, can be another result of hard water. The tiny vessels film up with mineral deposits, which results in a build-up pressure in the eye.